>em>Background: The Experiments Focused on Two Big Problems in Crisis Response, Stability Operations, and Building Partner Nation Capacity: (1) Facilitating Situational Awareness (SA), and (2) Sharing it Under a Wide Range of Conditions
Staff members of organizations in the field understand that they must be aware of the situation around them. Information about critical activities—like the routing of supplies, public health, and emerging threats—is key, both to ensuring their team members’ security and to assisting stressed populations. Yet this situational awareness is all-too-often partial and not actionable, both during crisis response operations and stabilization and development activities. There are two major reasons for this problem: bandwidth limitations and information sharing barriers.
In early August 2009, a team of geographers, software developers, government employees, and NGO field staff members convened at the Naval Postgraduate School’s (NPS) testing facility at Camp Roberts in California to confront some of these problems. They focused on two scenarios—stability operations in Afghanistan and planning for a natural disaster in Central America. The team (1) experimented with new ways to create situational awareness assuming only the availability of SMS/text-messages, (2) rationed use of low-bandwidth satellite connections, and (3) used a deployment kit that included a new archive of sub one-meter (1m) imagery that the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) made available in July 2009 for participants in US and coalition operations. The goals were to show what kind of situational awareness could be built quickly when militaries and civilian organizations work together and use simple, freely available, open-source tools in conjunction with the common commercial tools in use by the government and NGOs.
The team included a mix of thought leaders from the open-source software community, industry, the military, and NGOs that provide humanitarian information technologies: OpenStreetMap, Walking Papers, Google, InSTEDD, Development Seed, Sahana, GeoCommons/FortiusOne, TerraPan Labs, the Naval Postgraduate School’s “Hastily Formed Networks” Lab, and the San Diego State University Visualization Lab, as well as observers from the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, the National Defense University (NDU), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
The team approached the challenge of developing situational awareness in five linked activities:
Through the dedicated work of the team, most goals were realized. The team built base maps from a drive of Afghan imagery supplied by NGA; visualized data from across Nangarhar province; integrated two methods of collecting data via SMS; and proved that the maps could be shared (and updated) when placed on a USB-stick based mapping application. The following section explains the capabilities that were created and their potential field applications.
The cornerstone of the work was an experiment built around NGA’s recent reviews of the imagery license terms for civilian partners in Afghan and disaster relief environments. After several years of dedicated policy work, NGA created a means to release imagery legally at resolutions of less than 1m to NGOs and other participants in activities which directly benefit the interests of the US government. These experiments were the first test run of this imagery release process. Test data included seven cells of 0.8m imagery from eastern Afghanistan, which is approximately 19 times the resolution previously available to civilian participants. Similar data could be provided for disaster relief in Central America. An example of the difference appears in Figure 1, with the old imagery on the left and the new imagery from NGA on the right.
(Figure 1)
Using the Google Earth Fusion server, the team combined the raw NGA overhead imagery with elevation data, thereby creating small three-dimensional tiles that could be hosted on local laptop servers and viewed via three-dimensional flythroughs.
Based on these tiles, OpenStreetMap developed a paper-based method for sharing the imagery with local partners, including farmers, called Walking Papers. This method overlays a simplified grid coordinate system over a base map and enables anyone to add pen-on-paper annotations that can later be scanned back into the GIS application. Walking Papers allows users to download any part of a map into a printable file, which includes a bar-code that ties the paper map to its coordinates in the GIS application. The integration of Walking Papers may prove to be the biggest win from the experiments. This method offers a way to map field data even when network connections are down. It will also enable even illiterate peoples to point to spots where important projects should be built (or identify where potential projects might encounter issues).
The team also explored the use of unmanned autonomous systems (UAS), the airborne version of which are often called UAVs. This is critical for many parts of Latin America, where cloud cover often precludes the collection of useful satellite imagery. These platforms can let organizations in the field gain near-real-time situational awareness when operating beneath cloud cover, as well as in situations which require imagery faster than the 24-hour, or longer, delays typical for overhead data downloads. UAVs can also collect imagery at resolutions under 10cm, depending on altitude and the camera used. The team’s work centered on processing still images taken from low-cost aerial systems, like the TerraPan UAS—a sub-$10K UAV capable of taking 1cm imagery when flying at 500 feet. Although insurance issues and customs delays on critical equipment preventing the team from flying the micro-UAVs during this set of experiments, TerraPan and SDSU Visualization Lab teams provided archived imagery and advice that still enabled the team to test a proof-of-concept model.
The team learned several critical lessons from this work. First, low-cost UAVs have very short endurance times, often less than 30 minutes. To be useful, they must be flown to a specific point of interest and quickly collect imagery from as many angles as possible. To enable this type of close analysis, larger, long-endurance UAVs (or recent overhead imagery) must enable analysts to identify points of interest, at which point a small fleet of micro-UAVs can be deployed for further imaging. This mashup will be explored in the November round of tests.
Second, the team found new lightweight communications payloads that might enable UAVs to serve as network hubs that could provide near-constant Internet bandwidth to disconnected field workers and crisis response teams. This new capability will be explored in a civilian context during a future test, hopefully in November 2009 or February 2010.
Integrating NGA imagery of eastern Afghanistan with data collected independently from the region proved to be a challenge. The data varied widely in resolution: some allowed determination of the productivity of individual trees in orchards throughout Nangarhar; others could be used to map ethnic boundaries or mark the locations of health clinics and sites for polling in the upcoming national elections.
The GeoCommons and Development Seed teams worked with the data to create new layers that could be placed on top of the basemaps from NGA and then be extended to include new maps based on the external elevation data. The resulting visualizations combined information from myriad NGOs working across the province. An example of a map of Nangarhar’s ethnic boundaries with ID reports, roads, news reports, airports, and polling locations appears in Figure 2:
(Figure 2)
Situations change in real time based on events in the field and situation maps should reflect these changes as quickly as possible. To accelerate mapping of new reports from staff in the field (as well as to enable crowdsourced reporting via social media as seen in Mumbai and Iran), the team integrated SMS reports into the situation map through two platforms: InSTEDD’s GeoChat and Development Seed’s SlingshotSMS.
These applications work similarly. By registering a phone with the mapping application, a user may submit reports using a special syntax that is already gaining popularity in social media: location * tags * message. For example, the following message,”grid_C32_54 * incident, firefight, wounded * Observed firefight with wounded persons treated by ICRC,” translates into a report that states “at map coordinate C3.2 x 5.4, a staff member observed a firefight with wounded persons treated by ICRC.” The report would be plotted on a mapping layer conflicts, marked as an incident, and categorized under firefights, with wounded. Figure 3 gives an example:
(Figure 3)
These two applications—GeoChat and Slingshot—give fielded organizations a means to track ongoing incidents quickly without having to transcribe push-to-talk radio conversations or wait for teams to return from the field. Importantly, it also creates a means for other organizations to subscribe to the data feeds, akin to the way in which individuals subscribe to RSS feeds from other news sources. In this way, multiple organizations can cross-subscribe to the feeds coming in from their field staffs and create composite layers from all activities in a region. In some cases, separate mechanisms maybe needed to determine the accuracy of the incoming reports. Through these feeds, the Sahana team was able to integrate reports into their disaster management platform, showing both the location of incidents and their relationship to the “who needs what, why, where, and when” visualizations in their application.
Sharing Situation Maps over Low Bandwidth Networks
Sharing situation maps within and across organizations raises numerous issues aside from usual questions of information security. More fundamentally, getting maps out to field staff in a useful format over low bandwidth connections is a technical hurdle that precedes any policy discussion. The team intended to remove this hurdle to enable the policy discussion to proceed without excuses related tog technical difficulties, and partially succeeded.
Sahana packaged the situation maps created in OpenStreetMap with their software onto both ultraportable, disconnected netbooks and OLPCs (One Latop Per Child). These platforms created a disconnected copy of the maps and enabled field staff to collect data through Sahana that could be synchronized with a primary instance of Sahana, as well as with a local copy of OpenStreetMap, which in turn synchronized the data with InSTEDD’s GeoChat and the aforementioned GeoCommons/ Development Seed visualizations. Development Seed displayed a proof-of-concept USB map-on-a-stick, which packaged the processed NGA tiles of Nangarhar into low-resolution images that could be overlaid with the NGO data sets from the region using only one web HTML file. This application created a means to abstract the data from its visualization using an incredibly lightweight tool—a free web browser—as the only required software. It also created an opportunity to move situational maps quickly into the hands of field workers solely by making and updating USB memory sticks. Restrictions on using USB devices on DoD computers are recognized, but not all organizations have such limits.
The USB mapping sticks provide another opportunity: the ability to synchronize data between laptops via SMS. Using InSTEDD’s Mesh4x platform, which uses SMS messages to synchronize data sources, a scenario can be imagined where field workers could submit reports both to a central hub and to anyone that they allow to cross-subscribe to their data feeds. Real-time updates in a peer-to-peer fashion are now a real possibility. This functionality will be explored in the future.
These experiments did not develop operational code, only proofs of concept. The tools have been put into the hands of several testers in the field to get their feedback, so the tools can be hardened and made ready for the rigors of real-world use. Output from the experiment is currently in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, where Todd Huffman is working with NGO partners to examine how closely the results meet their needs. The team will reconvene in November to build out ideas and move towards a deployable package for rapid situational awareness.
Several of the organizations that participated in the Nangarhar PEAK experimentation at Camp Roberts have posted their results on their blogs. As of the date of this report, the following blog posts and videos are available:
>em>Background: The Experiments Focused on Two Big Problems in Crisis Response, Stability Operations, and Building Partner Nation Capacity: (1) Facilitating Situational Awareness (SA), and (2) Sharing it Under a Wide Range of Conditions
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Amnesty International, which calls the situation in Iraq “the fastest-growing displacement crisis in the world,” took a not-so-veiled swipe at the United States in a September 2007 report (PDF). The humanitarian plight of Iraqis “has been largely ignored by the rest of the world,” the report said, “including states whose military involvement in Iraq has played a part in creating the situation.” Amelia Templeton, of Human Rights First, was more direct: “People believe the U.S. has a special responsibility to deal with this crisis. But we’re doing nothing” (Reuters). 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The refugees’ own meager assets, lack of education and skills, compounded by Afghanistan’s lack of infrastructure to accommodate returnees, have made returning an unattractive option. The refugees represent a political and economic strain on Pakistan today; if they return, they will add to the stresses in Afghanistan. The result is a continuing policy problem for the United States. 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', 'biblio_date' => '05/27/2008', 'biblio_isbn' => '', 'biblio_lang' => '', 'biblio_abst_e' => 'In 2007, across this region spanning two continents, the ICRC’s main priorities were to protect people deprived of their freedom, to seek clarification of the fate of people unaccounted for from past and current conflicts, and to assist and protect people directly affected by ongoing armed conflict, particularly in Colombia. The ICRC also continued to promote IHL and foster a deeper understanding of the organization’s role and activities among the region’s authorities, armed and security forces, universities and schools. National Societies were the ICRC’s main operational partners in many domains. They continued to benefit from ICRC support to strengthen their capacities, in particular in the areas of disaster preparedness, the Safer Access approach, restoring family links, and IHL dissemination. In coordination with the International Federation, the ICRC also supported the efforts of National Societies in adapting their statutes and structures to Movement requirements. The ICRC coordinated its activities with Movement partners, UN agencies and other humanitarian actors in fields of common interest, in order to maximize impact, fill gaps and avoid duplication. Across the region, the ICRC offered its expertise to governments in acceding to IHL treaties and enacting national implementing legislation. It worked with the armed forces towards the permanent integration of IHL norms into their doctrine, operating procedures and manuals, while helping them to achieve autonomy in conducting IHL training programmes. A similar approach was employed with regard to police training in international human rights standards and humanitarian principles applicable to the use of force. The ICRC encouraged academic institutions and secondary schools to integrate IHL into their curricula. It further consolidated its network of media contacts to encourage journalists to highlight humanitarian concerns when reporting on conflicts around the world. The region covered in the present chapter comprises three subregions: Eastern Europe and Central Asia; North America and Western, Central and South-Eastern Europe; and Latin America and the Caribbean. 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', 'biblio_date' => '07/24/2003', 'biblio_isbn' => '', 'biblio_lang' => '', 'biblio_abst_e' => 'Small island and coastal nations of the world have long been recognized as being among the most likely to be affected by the potential impacts of global climate change. Such nations may be found in both the Caribbean and Asian regions. These regions share other commonalities as well, such as tropical climates and, to some extent, the hazards to which these countries are vulnerable. The inextricable linkage between climate change and disaster management emerges from the potential of the former to result in an increased frequency and severity of hydro-meteorological hazards and the associated increase in risk faced by countries as a whole and by vulnerable communities in particular. Within the Caribbean, the most visible of these impacts has been the increasing vulnerability to severe storms and the increased frequency and intensity of flood events. In Asia, the severity of weather extremes associated with the El Niño phenomenon has been apparent. Recent events have resulted in significant social, economic and environmental losses. But, the more gradual—yet nevertheless potentially as catastrophic—impacts expected from climate change include enhanced coastal and beach erosion; loss of land and property; dislocation of people; reduced resilience of coastal ecosystems and hence reduced viability for fisheries; and the bleaching and destruction of coral reefs. For the island states of both the Caribbean and Southeast Asia, which depend heavily on tourism, agriculture and fisheries for their livelihood, these impacts could be ruinous. For many countries, increased vulnerability to water shortages due to climate change is also a very significant concern. The need for a comprehensive integrated approach to natural hazard risk management that would combine the broader climate change and risk management agendas, as well as the urgency to advance the mainstreaming of disaster management and climate change, resulted in the convening of the Seminar on Climate Change and Severe Weather Events in the Caribbean and Asia, held in Barbados in July, 2003. Specialists from both the Caribbean and Southeast Asia were brought together to discuss current adaptation strategies to severe weather events and to explore possible strategies for addressing climate change in the critical sectors of water resources, tourism, agriculture and fisheries. These sectors were examined in each region with a view toward sharing a range of experiences and facilitating inter-regional information exchange. This publication brings together good practices identified through presentations and case studies prepared for the seminar, with a focus on practices that are both relevant and transferable between the regions. 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', 'biblio_date' => 'February 2002', 'biblio_isbn' => '0-89629-642-3', 'biblio_lang' => '', 'biblio_abst_e' => 'Whose responsibility is it to assure food security in an age of globalization? Is improved governance at the international level our greatest need, or are governance deficits most severe at the national level? When national governments lag in assuring food security for their own citizens, can outsiders help make up the resulting governance deficit? What role can bilateral donors and international financial institutions, such as the World Bank, play? Is it possible for NGOs to step in to do the job? These and related pressing questions are addressed in this discussion paper by Robert Paarlberg. He argues that the problems of hunger and food insecurity urgently require a national, not global focus. Many national governments in developing countries still do not provide essential public goods, such as civil peace, rule of law, transport infrastructure, clean water, electrical power, and public research to generate new agricultural productivity— essential ingredients in the effort to boost incomes. For tackling hunger, the weak performance of nation-states remains most critical—and in most critical need of improvement. According to Paarlberg, the governance challenge as far as food security is concerned is to persuade sovereign governments to provide the necessary public goods that would ensure access to adequate food. This paper was commissioned for IFPRI’s 2020 Vision Initiative conference, “Sustainable Food Security for All by 2020,” held on September 4–6, 2001, in Bonn, Germany. A summary version was presented at the session on “Whose Responsibility Is It To End Hunger?” The presentation sparked a long overdue discussion on who are the key actors in the effort to eliminate hunger, how their role has changed over time, and what their responsibilities are likely to be in the future. 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